Media intervention in post-war settings: Insights from the Epistemologies of the South
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Artículos del monográfico
Publicado:
18-12-2016
Autores/as
- Sofia Jose Santos CES (Centro de Estudios Sociales, Coimbra, Portugal)
- Sara Araújo (PT) Centre for Social Studies - University of Coimbra
- Teresa Almeida Cravo (PT) Centre for Social Studies - University of Coimbra
Resumen
Over the past two decades, international intervention in post-war settings has strictly followed liberal assumptions and practices. Efforts to build and shape the media in the aftermath of armed conflict are no exception. In setting the foundations for the rule of law, liberal democracy and free market, external actors have (re)defined what constitutes the mediascape – that is, the various spheres of communication within public discourse – and how to (re)construct it. Imprinted with modernity’s tenets and western assumptions about the public space, this approach has understood the mediascape narrowly as limited to traditional, established, liberal media, serving to validate particular actors and processes whilst obscuring, neglecting and shutting off global diversity. Law and technology, this paper argues, are the two main axes through which legitimation and exclusion are effected. A myopic focus on legal and technological aspects of the media reduces a rich space of local discourses, norms and practices to western-like media legislation, training and outlets, narrowing in turn the sites for addressing violence and building peace.
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Santos, S. J., Araújo, S., & Cravo, T. A. (2016). Media intervention in post-war settings: Insights from the Epistemologies of the South. Commons. Revista De Comunicación Y Ciudadanía Digital, 5(2). Recuperado a partir de https://revistas.uca.es/index.php/cayp/article/view/3235
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Citas
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ANSU-KYEREMEH, K. (Ed.) (2005). Indigenous Communication in Africa: Concept, Applications and Prospects. Accra: Ghaba University Press.
ARAÚJO, S. (2014). Ecologia de Justiças a Sul e a Norte, Cartografias Comparadas das Justiças Comunitárias em Maputo e Lisboa. PhD Dissertation. Coimbra: Faculty of Economy, University of Coimbra.
ARAÚJO, S. (2015). Desafiando a colonialidade. A ecologia de justiças como instrumento da descolonização jurídica, Hendu – Revista Latino-Americana de Direitos Humanos, 6 (1), 26-46.
ARAÚJO, S. (2016). O primado do direito e as exclusões abissais. Reconstruir velhos conceitos, desafiar o cânone, Sociologias, 43(18), 88-115.
ARAÚJO, S. & SANTOS, S. J. (2017). Media e as Epistemologias do Sul, JANUS Anuário, OBSERVARE, Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa, fothcoming.
BORGES, M. & SANTOS, S. J. (2009). The political project of post-conflict reconstruction: gaining settings and minds, Portuguese Journal of International Affairs, Autumn/Winter 2009, 69-79.
BOUTROS-GHALI, B. (1992). An Agenda for Peace, United Nations, A/47/277-S/24111, http://www.unrol.org/files/A_47_277.pdf.
BOUTROS-GHALI, B. (1995). Supplement to the Agenda for Peace, United Nations, http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/UNRO%20S1995%201.pdf.
BRATIC, V. (2005). In search of peace media: examining the role of peace media in peace developments of the Post-Cold War Conflicts. PhD Dissertation. Ohio University.
BRIGGS, A. & BURKE, P. (2009). A Social History of the Media: From Gutenberg to the Internet. Cambridge: Polity Press.
BUSH, G. H. W. (1991). Address to the Nation on the Invasion of Iraq (January 16, 1991). Speech Transcription, http://millercenter.org/president/bush/speeches/speech-3428.
BUSH, K. (2004). Commodification, compartmentalization and militarisation of peacebuilding. In T. Keating & W. Knight, Building Sustainable Peace. Edmonton and Tokyo: The University of Alberta Press, The United Nations University Press.
CALLON, M. & LATOUR, B. (1981). Unscrewing the Big Leviathan: How Actors Macro-Structure Reality and How Sociologists Help them Do So. In K. Knorr-Cetina & A. Cicourel (Ed.), Advances in Social theory and Methodology (pp. 277-303). London: Routledge.
CARVALHO, A. de S. & SANTOS, S. J. (2016). Voice matters: exploring the mediascape from the Epistemologies of the South, forthcoming.
CASTRO-GÓMEZ, S. & GROSFOGUEL, R. (2007) (Org.). El giro decolonial. Reflexiones para una diversidad epistémica más allá del capitalismo global. Bogotá: Siglo del Hombre Editores, Universidad Central-Instituto de Estudios Sociales Contemporáneos y Pontificia Universidad Javeriana-Instituto Pensar.
CDG- CENTRE FOR DEMOCRACY AND GOVERNANCE (1999). The Role of Media in Democracy: a strategic approach. Washington DC: USAID Connections.
CHAKRABARTY, D. (2000). Provincializing Europe. Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
COHEN, M. & GLOVER, J. (2014). Colonial Mediascapes. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press.
COKER, P. (2003). The role of the media and public information. In M. Mala et al., Sierra Leone, Building the Road to Recovery. Institute for Security Studies, http://www.issafrica.org/publications/monographs/monograph-80-sierra-leone-building-the-road-to-recovery-mark-malan-sarah-meek-thokozani-thusi-jeremy-ginifer-patrick-coker.
COLLIER, P. & HOEFFLER, A., (2004). On economic causes of civil war. Oxford: Oxford Economic Papers. http://www.worldbank.org/research/conflict/papers/cw-cause.pdf.
DOYLE, M. (1986). Liberalism and World Politics, The American Political Science Review, 80(4), 1151-1169.
DUSEK, V. (2006). Philosophy of technology: An introduction. Blackwell Publishing,
ESCOBAR, A. (2003). ‘Mundos y conocimientos de outro Modo’. El programa de investigación de modernidad/colonialidade latino-americano, Tabula Rasa, 1, 51-86.
FEENBERG, A. (1991). Critical Theory of Technology. New York: Oxford University Press.
FUKUYAMA, F. (1992). The End of History and the Last Man. London: Penguin Books.
GALTUNG, J (1969). Violence, Peace and Peace Research, Journal of Peace Research, 6(3), 167-191.
GALTUNG, J. (1990). Cultural Violence, Journal of Peace Research, 27(3), 291-305.
GURR, T. R. & HARFF, B. (1994). Ethnic Conflict in World Politics. Boulder: Westview Press.
HABERMAS, J. (2006). Técnica e Ciência como Ideologia. Lisboa: Edições 70.
HALL, S. (1992). The West and the Rest: Discourse and Power. In S. Hall & B. Gieben, Formations of modernity. Cambridge: Open University.
HARRIS, I. & MORRISON, M. (2003). Peace Education. North Carolina: McFarland.
HIEBER, L. (2001). Lifeline Media: Reaching Population in Crisis—A Guide to Developing Media Projects in Conflict Situations. Media Action International, http://www.preventionweb.net/files/636_10303.pdf.
HOWARD, R. (2002). An operational framework for media and peacebuilding, IMPACS, http://www.impacs.org/actions/files/MediaPrograms/framework_apr5.pdf.
HOWARD, R. (2003). The media’s role in war and peacebuilding, IMPACS, http://www.impacs.org/media/mediapeacebuilding/research.
JABRI, V. (1996). Discourses on Violence: Conflict Analysis Reconsidered. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
JEONG, H.-W. (2005). Peacebuilding in Post-conflict Societies. London: Lynner Reyenners Publishers.
KALDOR, M. (1999). New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era. Polity Press, Oxford.
KLINE, S. (1985). What is Technology?, Bulletin of Science, Technology and Society, 5, no. 3 (1985), 215-218.
LANDER, E. (2000) (Org.). A colonialidade del saber: Eurocentrismo y ciencias sociales. Perspectivas latino-americanas. Buenos Aires: CLACSO.
LARGE, J. (1998). The war next door. A study of second track intervention during the war in ex-Jugoslavia. Stroud: Hawthorn Press.
LEDERACH, J. P. (1997). Building Peace: sustainable reconciliation in divided societies. Washington DC. United States: Institute of Peace Press.
LYNCH, J. & MCGOLDRICK, A. (2005). Peace Journalism. Hawthorn Press.
MANDELBAUM, M. (2003). The Ideas that Conquered the World: Peace, democracy and free-market in the twenty-first century. New York: Public Affairs.
MANUEL, S. (2004). UN Media and Post Conflict Peace-Keeping, UNESCO. http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=15499&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html>.
MARCUSE, H. (1969a). An Essay on Liberation. London: Allen Lane The Penguin Press.
MARCUSE, H. (1969b). An Essay on Liberation. London: Allen Lane The Penguin Press.
MARX, K. (1977 [1867]). Capital: A Critique of Political Economy (Volume 1). Translated by B. Fowkes. New York: Vintage Books.
MILLER, J. (2009). NGO and ‘Modernization’ and ‘Democratization’ of Media: Situating Media Assistance, Global Media and Communication, 5(1), 9-33.
OSCE (1975). Helsinki Final Act, 1st August 1975, http://www.osce.org/mc/39501.
poushte, J. (2016). Smartphone Ownership and Internet Usage Continues to Climb in Emerging Economies: But advanced economies still have higher rates of technology use, Report, Pew Research Centre, http://www.pewglobal.org/files/2016/02/pew_research_center_global_technology_report_final_february_22__2016.pdf.
PUREZA, J. M. et al. (2005). Prevenção de conflitos armadas, cooperação para o desenvolvimento e integração justa no sistema internacional. Report. Coimbra: CES, http://www.ces.uc.pt/nucleos/nep/pdfs/prevencao_conflitos.pdf.
QUIJANO, A. (1991). Colonialidad y Modernidad/Racionalidad, Perú Indígena, 13(29), 11-29.
QUIJANO, A. (2009). Colonialidade do poder e classificação social. In B. de S. Santos & M. P. Meneses (Eds.), Epistemologias do Sul. Coimbra: Almedina.
RAUBE-WILSON, S. (1986). The New World Information and Communication Order and International Human Rights Law, 9 B.C. Int'l & Comp. L. Rev. 107, http://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/iclr/vol9/iss1/5
ROTBERG, R. (2002). The new nature of nation-state failure, The Washington Quatterly, 25:3, 85-96.
SAID, E. (1978). Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books.
SOUSA SANTOS, B., NUNES, J. A. & MENESES, M. P. (2004). Introdução: Para ampliar o cânone da ciência: a diversidade epistemológica do mundo. In B. de S. Santos (Ed.), Semear outras soluções. Os caminhos da biodiversidade e dos conhecimentos rivais. Porto: Edições Afrontamento.
SANTOS, S. J. (2010). Media para a paz e peacebuilding: uma critica à intervenção internacional. Universitas: Relações Internacionais, 8, 2.
SANTOS, S. J. (2012). Media and Interculturality: Mapping Theories, Projects and Gaps. In S. Gonçalves & M. A. Carpenter (Org.), Diversity, Intercultural Encounters, and Education. London: Routledge.
SANTOS, S. J. (2015). Os media como agentes de (des)securitização das sociedades: crónica de uma história inacabada e o desafio da outra metade. In R. Freire & A. Barrinha (Org.), Segurança, Liberdade e Política. Pensar a Escola de Copenhaga em Português. Lisboa: Instituto de Ciências Sociais (ICS).
SANTOS, S. J. (2017). Media, Dicionário ALICE, Centro de Estudos Sociais, fothcoming.
SHAW, E. (1979). Agenda-setting and Mass Communication Theory, Gazette (International Journal for Mass Communication Studies), XXV (2).
SOGGE, D. (2002). Give & Take: What’s the matter with foreign aid?, Global Issues, Zed Books.
SPIVAK, G. C. (1988). Can the Subaltern Speak?. In C. Nelson & L. Grossberg (Org.), Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture. London: Macmillan.
SOUSA SANTOS, B. (2002). O fim das descobertas imperiais. In I. B. Oliveira & P. Sgarbi (Ed.), Redes culturais, diversidade e educação. Rio de Janeiro: DP&A.
SOUSA SANTOS, B. (2006). A gramática do tempo. Para uma nova cultura política. Porto: Edições Afrontamento.
SOUSA SANTOS, B. (2014). Epistemologies of the South. Boulder: Paradigm, 2014
TODOROV, T. (1984). The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other. New York: Harper & Row.
UKIWO, U. (2005). On the Study of Ethnicity. Oxford, University of Oxford, http://www.crise.ox.ac.uk/pubs/workingpaper12.pdf
UNESCO (1978) UNESCO Declaration on Fundamental Principles concerning the Contribution of the Mass Media to Strengthening Peace and International Understanding, to the Promotion of Human Rights and to Countering Racialism, apartheid and incitement to war, http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=13176&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html.
WHIMURST, D. (2002). Preparing a Plebiscite under fire: the United Nations and Public Information in East Timor. In M. Price & M. Thompson, Forging Peace: intervention, human rights and the management of the media space, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
YOUNG, R. J. C. (2009). What is the postcolonial? Ariel, 40 (1).
ZARTMAN, W. (1995). Introduction: Posing the problems of State Colapse. In W. Zartman (Ed.), Collapsed states, the disintegration and restoration of legitimate authority. Boulder: Lynn Rienner Publishers.
ZEEUM, J. (2001). Building Peace in War-torn Societies: from concept to strategy. The Hague: Clingendael Institute. Available in: https://www.clingendael.nl/sites/default/files/20010800_cru_paper_dezeeuw.pdf.
ANSU-KYEREMEH, K. (Ed.) (2005). Indigenous Communication in Africa: Concept, Applications and Prospects. Accra: Ghaba University Press.
ARAÚJO, S. (2014). Ecologia de Justiças a Sul e a Norte, Cartografias Comparadas das Justiças Comunitárias em Maputo e Lisboa. PhD Dissertation. Coimbra: Faculty of Economy, University of Coimbra.
ARAÚJO, S. (2015). Desafiando a colonialidade. A ecologia de justiças como instrumento da descolonização jurídica, Hendu – Revista Latino-Americana de Direitos Humanos, 6 (1), 26-46.
ARAÚJO, S. (2016). O primado do direito e as exclusões abissais. Reconstruir velhos conceitos, desafiar o cânone, Sociologias, 43(18), 88-115.
ARAÚJO, S. & SANTOS, S. J. (2017). Media e as Epistemologias do Sul, JANUS Anuário, OBSERVARE, Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa, fothcoming.
BORGES, M. & SANTOS, S. J. (2009). The political project of post-conflict reconstruction: gaining settings and minds, Portuguese Journal of International Affairs, Autumn/Winter 2009, 69-79.
BOUTROS-GHALI, B. (1992). An Agenda for Peace, United Nations, A/47/277-S/24111, http://www.unrol.org/files/A_47_277.pdf.
BOUTROS-GHALI, B. (1995). Supplement to the Agenda for Peace, United Nations, http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/UNRO%20S1995%201.pdf.
BRATIC, V. (2005). In search of peace media: examining the role of peace media in peace developments of the Post-Cold War Conflicts. PhD Dissertation. Ohio University.
BRIGGS, A. & BURKE, P. (2009). A Social History of the Media: From Gutenberg to the Internet. Cambridge: Polity Press.
BUSH, G. H. W. (1991). Address to the Nation on the Invasion of Iraq (January 16, 1991). Speech Transcription, http://millercenter.org/president/bush/speeches/speech-3428.
BUSH, K. (2004). Commodification, compartmentalization and militarisation of peacebuilding. In T. Keating & W. Knight, Building Sustainable Peace. Edmonton and Tokyo: The University of Alberta Press, The United Nations University Press.
CALLON, M. & LATOUR, B. (1981). Unscrewing the Big Leviathan: How Actors Macro-Structure Reality and How Sociologists Help them Do So. In K. Knorr-Cetina & A. Cicourel (Ed.), Advances in Social theory and Methodology (pp. 277-303). London: Routledge.
CARVALHO, A. de S. & SANTOS, S. J. (2016). Voice matters: exploring the mediascape from the Epistemologies of the South, forthcoming.
CASTRO-GÓMEZ, S. & GROSFOGUEL, R. (2007) (Org.). El giro decolonial. Reflexiones para una diversidad epistémica más allá del capitalismo global. Bogotá: Siglo del Hombre Editores, Universidad Central-Instituto de Estudios Sociales Contemporáneos y Pontificia Universidad Javeriana-Instituto Pensar.
CDG- CENTRE FOR DEMOCRACY AND GOVERNANCE (1999). The Role of Media in Democracy: a strategic approach. Washington DC: USAID Connections.
CHAKRABARTY, D. (2000). Provincializing Europe. Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
COHEN, M. & GLOVER, J. (2014). Colonial Mediascapes. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press.
COKER, P. (2003). The role of the media and public information. In M. Mala et al., Sierra Leone, Building the Road to Recovery. Institute for Security Studies, http://www.issafrica.org/publications/monographs/monograph-80-sierra-leone-building-the-road-to-recovery-mark-malan-sarah-meek-thokozani-thusi-jeremy-ginifer-patrick-coker.
COLLIER, P. & HOEFFLER, A., (2004). On economic causes of civil war. Oxford: Oxford Economic Papers. http://www.worldbank.org/research/conflict/papers/cw-cause.pdf.
DOYLE, M. (1986). Liberalism and World Politics, The American Political Science Review, 80(4), 1151-1169.
DUSEK, V. (2006). Philosophy of technology: An introduction. Blackwell Publishing,
ESCOBAR, A. (2003). ‘Mundos y conocimientos de outro Modo’. El programa de investigación de modernidad/colonialidade latino-americano, Tabula Rasa, 1, 51-86.
FEENBERG, A. (1991). Critical Theory of Technology. New York: Oxford University Press.
FUKUYAMA, F. (1992). The End of History and the Last Man. London: Penguin Books.
GALTUNG, J (1969). Violence, Peace and Peace Research, Journal of Peace Research, 6(3), 167-191.
GALTUNG, J. (1990). Cultural Violence, Journal of Peace Research, 27(3), 291-305.
GURR, T. R. & HARFF, B. (1994). Ethnic Conflict in World Politics. Boulder: Westview Press.
HABERMAS, J. (2006). Técnica e Ciência como Ideologia. Lisboa: Edições 70.
HALL, S. (1992). The West and the Rest: Discourse and Power. In S. Hall & B. Gieben, Formations of modernity. Cambridge: Open University.
HARRIS, I. & MORRISON, M. (2003). Peace Education. North Carolina: McFarland.
HIEBER, L. (2001). Lifeline Media: Reaching Population in Crisis—A Guide to Developing Media Projects in Conflict Situations. Media Action International, http://www.preventionweb.net/files/636_10303.pdf.
HOWARD, R. (2002). An operational framework for media and peacebuilding, IMPACS, http://www.impacs.org/actions/files/MediaPrograms/framework_apr5.pdf.
HOWARD, R. (2003). The media’s role in war and peacebuilding, IMPACS, http://www.impacs.org/media/mediapeacebuilding/research.
JABRI, V. (1996). Discourses on Violence: Conflict Analysis Reconsidered. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
JEONG, H.-W. (2005). Peacebuilding in Post-conflict Societies. London: Lynner Reyenners Publishers.
KALDOR, M. (1999). New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era. Polity Press, Oxford.
KLINE, S. (1985). What is Technology?, Bulletin of Science, Technology and Society, 5, no. 3 (1985), 215-218.
LANDER, E. (2000) (Org.). A colonialidade del saber: Eurocentrismo y ciencias sociales. Perspectivas latino-americanas. Buenos Aires: CLACSO.
LARGE, J. (1998). The war next door. A study of second track intervention during the war in ex-Jugoslavia. Stroud: Hawthorn Press.
LEDERACH, J. P. (1997). Building Peace: sustainable reconciliation in divided societies. Washington DC. United States: Institute of Peace Press.
LYNCH, J. & MCGOLDRICK, A. (2005). Peace Journalism. Hawthorn Press.
MANDELBAUM, M. (2003). The Ideas that Conquered the World: Peace, democracy and free-market in the twenty-first century. New York: Public Affairs.
MANUEL, S. (2004). UN Media and Post Conflict Peace-Keeping, UNESCO. http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=15499&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html>.
MARCUSE, H. (1969a). An Essay on Liberation. London: Allen Lane The Penguin Press.
MARCUSE, H. (1969b). An Essay on Liberation. London: Allen Lane The Penguin Press.
MARX, K. (1977 [1867]). Capital: A Critique of Political Economy (Volume 1). Translated by B. Fowkes. New York: Vintage Books.
MILLER, J. (2009). NGO and ‘Modernization’ and ‘Democratization’ of Media: Situating Media Assistance, Global Media and Communication, 5(1), 9-33.
OSCE (1975). Helsinki Final Act, 1st August 1975, http://www.osce.org/mc/39501.
poushte, J. (2016). Smartphone Ownership and Internet Usage Continues to Climb in Emerging Economies: But advanced economies still have higher rates of technology use, Report, Pew Research Centre, http://www.pewglobal.org/files/2016/02/pew_research_center_global_technology_report_final_february_22__2016.pdf.
PUREZA, J. M. et al. (2005). Prevenção de conflitos armadas, cooperação para o desenvolvimento e integração justa no sistema internacional. Report. Coimbra: CES, http://www.ces.uc.pt/nucleos/nep/pdfs/prevencao_conflitos.pdf.
QUIJANO, A. (1991). Colonialidad y Modernidad/Racionalidad, Perú Indígena, 13(29), 11-29.
QUIJANO, A. (2009). Colonialidade do poder e classificação social. In B. de S. Santos & M. P. Meneses (Eds.), Epistemologias do Sul. Coimbra: Almedina.
RAUBE-WILSON, S. (1986). The New World Information and Communication Order and International Human Rights Law, 9 B.C. Int'l & Comp. L. Rev. 107, http://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/iclr/vol9/iss1/5
ROTBERG, R. (2002). The new nature of nation-state failure, The Washington Quatterly, 25:3, 85-96.
SAID, E. (1978). Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books.
SOUSA SANTOS, B., NUNES, J. A. & MENESES, M. P. (2004). Introdução: Para ampliar o cânone da ciência: a diversidade epistemológica do mundo. In B. de S. Santos (Ed.), Semear outras soluções. Os caminhos da biodiversidade e dos conhecimentos rivais. Porto: Edições Afrontamento.
SANTOS, S. J. (2010). Media para a paz e peacebuilding: uma critica à intervenção internacional. Universitas: Relações Internacionais, 8, 2.
SANTOS, S. J. (2012). Media and Interculturality: Mapping Theories, Projects and Gaps. In S. Gonçalves & M. A. Carpenter (Org.), Diversity, Intercultural Encounters, and Education. London: Routledge.
SANTOS, S. J. (2015). Os media como agentes de (des)securitização das sociedades: crónica de uma história inacabada e o desafio da outra metade. In R. Freire & A. Barrinha (Org.), Segurança, Liberdade e Política. Pensar a Escola de Copenhaga em Português. Lisboa: Instituto de Ciências Sociais (ICS).
SANTOS, S. J. (2017). Media, Dicionário ALICE, Centro de Estudos Sociais, fothcoming.
SHAW, E. (1979). Agenda-setting and Mass Communication Theory, Gazette (International Journal for Mass Communication Studies), XXV (2).
SOGGE, D. (2002). Give & Take: What’s the matter with foreign aid?, Global Issues, Zed Books.
SPIVAK, G. C. (1988). Can the Subaltern Speak?. In C. Nelson & L. Grossberg (Org.), Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture. London: Macmillan.
SOUSA SANTOS, B. (2002). O fim das descobertas imperiais. In I. B. Oliveira & P. Sgarbi (Ed.), Redes culturais, diversidade e educação. Rio de Janeiro: DP&A.
SOUSA SANTOS, B. (2006). A gramática do tempo. Para uma nova cultura política. Porto: Edições Afrontamento.
SOUSA SANTOS, B. (2014). Epistemologies of the South. Boulder: Paradigm, 2014
TODOROV, T. (1984). The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other. New York: Harper & Row.
UKIWO, U. (2005). On the Study of Ethnicity. Oxford, University of Oxford, http://www.crise.ox.ac.uk/pubs/workingpaper12.pdf
UNESCO (1978) UNESCO Declaration on Fundamental Principles concerning the Contribution of the Mass Media to Strengthening Peace and International Understanding, to the Promotion of Human Rights and to Countering Racialism, apartheid and incitement to war, http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=13176&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html.
WHIMURST, D. (2002). Preparing a Plebiscite under fire: the United Nations and Public Information in East Timor. In M. Price & M. Thompson, Forging Peace: intervention, human rights and the management of the media space, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
YOUNG, R. J. C. (2009). What is the postcolonial? Ariel, 40 (1).
ZARTMAN, W. (1995). Introduction: Posing the problems of State Colapse. In W. Zartman (Ed.), Collapsed states, the disintegration and restoration of legitimate authority. Boulder: Lynn Rienner Publishers.
ZEEUM, J. (2001). Building Peace in War-torn Societies: from concept to strategy. The Hague: Clingendael Institute. Available in: https://www.clingendael.nl/sites/default/files/20010800_cru_paper_dezeeuw.pdf.